Life Attitudes of the Government Employees at the City Council of Davao Essay Example for Free

Life Attitudes of the Government Employees at the City Council of Davao Essay Factors involved in having satisfying attitudes are that we should enjoy life, be accountable for our own well being, and think in terms of taking care of our whole person. Positive attitude helps to cope more easily with the daily affairs of life. It brings optimism into your life, and makes it easier to avoid worry and negative thinking. If you adopt it as a way of life, it will bring constructive changes into your life, and makes them happier, brighter and more successful. With a positive attitude you see the bright side of life, become optimistic and expect the best to happen. It is certainly a state of mind that is well worth developing and strengthening. Based on the facts stated above, the researchers opted to investigate the life attitudes of government employees at City Council Davao City. Statement of the Problem This study aimed to investigate the general Life Attitudes of the government employees at City Council in Davao City; specifically it sought answers the following: 1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of: 1. Gender; and 2. Age? 2. What is the life attitude of the respondents? Is there a significant difference in the life attitude of the respondents when they are grouped according to age and gender? Hypothesis Ho: There is no significant difference in the life attitude of the respondents when they are grouped according to age and gender. Methodolgy This study made use of a descriptive-comparative design. Survey questionnaires were used as instruments for data collection. The respondents of this study were the employees of the City Council chosen using the simple random technique. The study was conducted throughout the City Council’s operating hours from Mondays through Fridays starting last January 16 to January 20, 2012 around 1-3 pm. The randomly sampled respondents were asked by the researchers for consent and approval to answer the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents which was 30 has been reached. The data were analyzed using appropriate statistical tools. The mean was used to determine the employees’ life attitude. The frequency and percent distribution were utilized in determining the employees’ profile in term of gender and age.

An Electronic Medical Record

An Electronic Medical Record An Electronic Medical Record (EMR) is a digital record of a patients medical history and test results. A record which is kept digitally allows for ease of transfer between physicians and readability, not relying on the old system of papers which need to be physically transferred, or at best, faxed between offices. EMR systems have existed for a number of years already, yet many hospitals and physicians still rely on paper records. However, a complete EMR system is complex, facilitating transfer of information between connected systems whether or not they are part of the same organization rather than being simply a flat file on a desktop with data entered. Many employees and physicians resist change and privacy issues are often at the forefront of concerns dealing with electronic media. This paper discusses the impacts of implementing and operating an EMR and some of the difficulties which may arise that health care providers cite as reasons not to go digital. Introduction The world of medical technology today abounds with news of breakthroughs and innovation using the latest science and techniques. Technology allows us to perform operations and treat patients in ways not thought possible just 20 years ago. The field of medical information systems however is lagging far behind the rest, with many medical records and communications between physicians still accomplished via paper. Why is there such a disparity between the procedures of performing medicine on patients and the way the records of the procedures on those same patients are kept? In this world of international travel where one can travel halfway around the globe in less than a day, should the medical records of the traveler not be able to arrive digitally if he or she needs it while out of the country? Implementation of Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) across the country and interconnecting them with the rest of the world, unfortunately, is a long and intensive process. Converting over to an EMR may adversely affect daily operations and increase risk if the proper steps are not taken. The cost may be prohibitive, costing up to $7 million for a 200 bed hospital. However, long term benefits outweigh the investment. Estimates show that implementation of an EMR system could save hospitals from $142 to $371 billion a year, increase the efficiency and reduce errors (Venkatraman, Bala, Venkatesh Bates, 2008, p.141). The planning and execution of the plan requires the support of both the management and the doctors and nurses who will be using the system on a daily basis. Accessibility For a system to be considered useful, the various components and interfaces must be accessible. In a study by Ilie, Slyke, Parikh and Courtney (2009), individuals often select the method of information entry and retrieval which is most accessible. The basis for these actions can be described using the least-effort model (p.218). Essentially whichever method is easier or more familiar is the method preferred. Hospitals and doctors offices have, for years, used a paper records system. The advantages of paper charts are that the charts are placed near each patient and allow for free form notation. Converting over to an EMR system requires training and convenient placement of terminals for physician and nurses. The most convenient may be placing a terminal in each office and station, in or just outside each patient location, or allowing portable units for information entry and retrieval; but implementation of this may not be within the budget or timetable. In instances where accessibilit y of terminals were not convenient, it was found that physicians and nurses fell back to documenting on paper charts and then later on reentering the data online (Spetz Keane, 2009, p.342). To reduce the tendency of users falling back on paper, strategic planning is required in choosing a system which is user-friendly and in placement of units for retrieval and entry of data. Accessibility also means the ability to retrieve needed information about a patient from locations where he or she does not have a previous record. In a world where EMR systems (which can interface with each other) are the norm, travelers would not have to worry that something may be overlooked simply because previous medical records were not available. In addition, cases where medical records were wiped out due to disasters and backups were not available, treatment of patients can become very difficult. After Hurricane Katrina, many physicians did not have medical records for patients needing emergency treatment; often the patients were themselves in no condition to answer questions or simply did not know enough to give meaningful answers (Brooks Grotz, 2010, p.73). Even when a hospital or doctors office installs an EMR system, thought should be given to how portable the data is. Due to the many different vendors available, EMR systems may or may not be able to transfer data effect ively. If a patient moves and requires treatment in another location, an incompatible EMR interface may require that the records be printed out and manually transferred to the new location, effectively negating one of the primary benefits of storing the information electronically. Benefits There are many benefits to implementing an EMR system, both tangible and intangible. One benefit, as mentioned above, could be the ability to share the information between different locations easily. Another benefit which is important to management but often takes time to realize is monetary, in the form of savings from increased efficiency and reduced errors. Increased efficiency also may translate to increased patient satisfaction, leading to increased business and reputation. Most people think of reducing the amount of paper used when a system migrates to going digital, but paper is a comparatively cheap medium though it takes up a large amount of space. On the other hand, take the case of the radiology department. The film used has to be specially prepared prior to use and it requires special equipment both to take the image and to process for viewing. Moving from hardcopy radiological images to one produced and stored digitally reduces both costs and facilitates transfer of images (Ayal Seidmann, 2009, p.45, 47). In the case study of the rural hospital, a number of systems were implemented to try and improve efficiency. The vision was to create an integrated IT system with an electronic medical record (EMR) and computerized physician order entry (CPOE). (Spetz Keane, 2009, p.338). Combining these two would make it possible for the patient to receive tests and treatments by the hospital, then the prescription would be relayed to the pharmacy electronically. The nurse would be able to scan the wristband of the patient and the labels on the prescriptions to verify the correct medicine goes to the correct person. A part of the system which had been implemented in the first month was a bar-coding system for supplies resulting in a decrease of patient care units running out of supplies due to improved inventory control (Spetz Keane, 2009, pp.338-340). The reduction of errors is also a key concern and the use of electronic records and a central database reduces the chances of duplication and mid-identification. As cited by Venkatraman, Bala, Venkatesh and Bates (2008) in their introduction to their paper, The Institute of Medicine (IOM) in 1999 shocked the nation by reporting that as much as 98000 people die in hospitals every year due to medical errors. These errors are also said to cost hospitals as much as $29 billion every year. Many costly mistakes might have been prevented if physicians had better information available or were not mislead by incorrect information, for example getting the wrong charts for the wrong person. In the process of proposing an EMR solution, the most common way is show benefits using monetary values and time/productivity savings. However, there are intangible benefits which are not so easily identified or measured. A desirable factor sometimes overlooked is increase in satisfaction, both for the customers and for the physicians (Ayal Seidmann, 2009, p.49). The ability to process results quickly affects the views the public has of the hospital or office and faster processing allows physicians to accomplish more. One of the most frustrating parts of health care is the wait necessary: patients waiting to be seen or waiting for doctors to diagnose the tests, doctors and nurses waiting for tests to be run or film to be developed. A byproduct of increasing the efficiency of processes is reduced frustration and improved satisfaction. After all, a patient at a hospital with an unknown problem should not have to wonder what is taking so long in addition to whats wrong with me? Implementation Once the decision has been made to acquire an EMR system, the next step is to decide which to use. Many medical technology and software companies are offering EMRs with many different specifications. Would a complete integrated system be better than a modular system? Are there partners requiring the ability to interface with the system? What is the degree of technological sophistication of the users? These questions and many other need to be addressed in deciding what type of EMR system would be the best fit. One key note in the implementation of a EMR system is that there is always a learning curve involved. Expect productivity to fall upon initial deployment with an increase in productivity once users are familiar with the system. A temporary decline of as much as 50% could be expected initially with productivity ramping back up to pre-implementation levels by six weeks, although some organizations required at least a year (Brooks Grotz, 2010, p.81). Often this period of decreased efficiency is what many users complain about: they cannot document as fast as they used to, they have to stop often to respond to system alerts, equipment is not working (possibly due to incorrect settings or improper use). Training for users of the system is thus an important part of the implementation plan. Enough time must be set aside for learning the system and support must be available if needed. Privacy Where terminals were placed is often important to the privacy of patients. In a case where an EMR system was implemented in a rural hospital, nurses and their managers had given input on locations for installation of computers and scanning cabinets. Once the nurses started using the system, however, issues of privacy came up. Some of the rooms were multi-bed and with only one computer, the nurse sometimes had to talk across one patient to get information from another (Spetz Keane, 2009, p.341). Obviously another method needed to be implemented to prevent violation of patient confidentiality; however such changes are not easily accomplished, especially if the system is already in place. Developing a policy for accessing the system is also paramount to protection of patient privacy in addition to business and financial records. There are several types of access levels available to a system as potentially complex as an EMR. The most obvious are access to medical and financial information. Also included are access to configure the hardware and software, especially the granting of permissions for other users to access various parts of the system. Imagine for example, the nurse who may need to collect financial or insurance information and enter it such that the billing department can access it. What if this same privilege inadvertently gave access to hospital financial records also? Also if an extranet is setup to interface with insurance companies for billing, how much access should they have? If policies are not set up correctly, insurance companies may be able to access records on patients under other insurance companys policies (Wilcox Brown, 2005, p.47). Past employees also need to have access to the system terminated and a policy should be in effect as to what a reasonable timeframe for access termination. Wilcox and Brown (2005) suggested that normal terminations, such as retirement, resignation and employee transfer, should be within one day and urgent terminations, such as a status change of an employee under hostile circumstances such as a firing, suspension, or other disciplinary action or any time there is reasonable cause to suspect that a user may try to harm or misuse data or system resources, should happen within an hour. Medical identity theft is now becoming more of a concern due to the abilities of hackers to access electronic systems. Just as someone could park outside a store and wirelessly tap into the credit card authorization process, someone could attempt to intercept communications between hospitals or even between departments within a hospital. Kieke cites a study by the Federal Trade Commission that states that medical identity theft accounts for 3 percent of identity theft crimes (Kieke, 2009). The theft may be used to fraudulently obtain health care services, file false claims, or attempt to secure drugs (Kieke, 2009, pp51-52). Once the identity has been compromised, it may be sold and resold multiple times, costing the patient time and money to clear the claims and establish their own identity again. Conclusion In many ways, implementation of an EMR system will be beneficial to hospitals and doctors offices. The degree of implementation is dependent on the requirements of the particular establishment. Specialized hospitals and many doctors offices do not require the whole gamut of software to run, often a subset or certain key modules would suffice. However, the ability to organize and display medical data in a meaningful way which follows some type of standardization and the ability to transfer records to other locations in times of need should be a requirement of any EMR implementation. Along with the technology needed comes a need to look at the human requirements behind using the system. The users, doctors and nurses in particular, are important to the overall success of any implantation. Not addressing issues which arise from this set of users may render the whole implementation moot.

Beneath the Smooth Skin of America Essay -- Scott R. Sanders Literatur

Beneath the Smooth Skin of America Change is something you are probably familiar with. In â€Å"Beneath the Smooth Skin of America,† Scott R. Sanders talks about many changes in his life. The author starts the story looking throw the eyes of himself as a child. As a child he remembers that all that was in his sight was all he could see. The author’s best example of this is he says, †Neighbors often appeared†¦where they came from I could not imagine† (27). As the author begins to see more by leaving the area he was around so often he starts to see more and more things. He started moving around to different places and started seeing the things that he had not see before. The author points out many things that he began to see like the stores around the town and the different colors of places. The smell of the certain area over the one smell he was used to. In his travels to the south he noticed the bathrooms signs in the south read, â€Å"Colored† and â€Å"White.† All these d ifferent changes made his world seen bigger and bigger. As the author got out more the more world started to irritate him. The author’s relatives, who lived in the southern states, helped the author to think of himself as, â€Å"A Northerner†(p.28). After leaving for college in Rhode Island he explains that in his college days he thought of himself as a â€Å"Midwesterner.† The other students of his college, using the stereotype, made fun of him and the way he acted. â€Å"I was square, my new friends assured me† (p.28). This ...

My Philosophical Approach To Counseling Essay -- essays research paper

My Philosophical Approach to Counseling Definition of Existential Therapy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One survey taken by Corey suggests a definition of Existential Therapy include two key elements: Existential Therapy is essentially an approach to counseling and therapy rather than a firm theoretical model, it stresses core human conditions. Normally, personality development is based on the uniqueness of each individual. Sense of self develops from infancy. Self determination and a tendency toward growth are control ideas. Focus is on the present and on what one is becoming; that is the approach has a future orientation. It stresses self-awareness before action. (1996, p.465)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In layman terms, Existential therapy can be described as a philosophical approach that is not designed to cure people but instead help the client reflect and search for value and meaning in life. Existential Therapy does not supply a cookbook of methods like other approaches but instead it provides a framework that is adaptable to the therapist, in which to view the individual and the world in which they participate. Definition of Person-Centered (Client-Centered) Therapy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Mosby's Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary, client-centered therapy is a non directive method of group or individual psychotherapy, originated by Carl Rogers, in which the role of the therapist is to listen to and reflect or restate without judgment or interpretation the words of the client. Objectives of Existential Therapy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The objectives of Existential Therapy are quite unique. Existential counselors are focused on helping the client achieve and expand their self- awareness. Many Therapist assume once self awareness is achieved, the client can examine new ways of dealing with problems and except the responsibility of choosing. Objectives of Client-centered Therapy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The objective of client-centered therapy is to assist the client to experience self exploration, so that they can identify problems that are hindering their growth process. Essentially, the main goal of client-centered therapy is to have the client achieve a sense of increased awareness and understanding of his attitudes, feelings, and behaviors. Professional Opinions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ... ...ce of Counseling and Psychotherapy. (Rev. ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Coleman. Hacker, D. J. (1994). An Existential View of Adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence. 14. (3), 300-327. Kendall, P., & Southam-Gerow, M.(1996). Long-term follow-up of a Cognitive- Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety-Disordered Youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 64.(4), 724-730. Porter, R. L., Wagner W., Johnson, J., & Cox, L. M. (1996). Sexually abused girls' verbalizations in counseling: an application of the client behavior system. [CD-ROM]. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 43. (4), 383-389. Abstract from: Health Reference Center. File Number: 18987461. Westman, A. S., (1992). Existential Anxiety as Related to Conceptualization of Self and of Death, Denial of Death, and Religiosity. Psychological Reports. 71. 1064-1066. Abstract This paper examined two philosophical and humanistic approaches I have chosen as my rationale to counseling and psychotherapy. The paper will define and explain the objectives and techniques of these two dynamic therapies. Furthermore, it will illustrate existential and client-centered therapy's importance in regards to treating adolescence.

Winter Moon :: essays research papers

Critique of Winter Moon In Winter Moon by Dean Koontz a cloudy Los Angeles, California day is shattered when a hot Hollywood director turns a city street into a fiery abyss. A heroic police officer, Jack McGarvey, is badly wounded in the inferno and will not be able to walk for months. Little does Jack know that a series of events will lead him and his family to a ranch in Montana. On that isolated ranch they discover their destiny in a horrific encounter with a ruthless and puzzling enemy from which neither the living nor dead are safe. Koontz’s novels seem to have one thing in common. Their themes are about how the human mind and spirit relate to things in life. He doesn’t stray from that commonality in Winter Moon. Koontz’s purpose in writing the book was to show that the power of the mind is yet an unmatched force. Both my mother and I agree that he accomplished this very well. His use of characters also fits a pattern that has developed in his writing. Koontz uses the same two characters in many of his novels: the heroic, faithful male and the strong female. Koontz’s employment of indirect characterization is impeccable, and makes the reader feel as though they really know the characters. At the beginning, the book can seem confusing, whereas Koontz jumps back and forth from character to character. I feel that after the reader has become accustomed to it, the switching between characters creates good stopping points. However, my mom found it annoying and didn’t like the switching. Koontz explodes into action during the first chapter, which grips the reader and holds their attention throughout the rest of the book. The novel starts out as two separate stories: a police officer’s family living in L.A. and an old retired man living in Montana. As the book progresses the two stories become more connected, and finally intertwined. The book can seem confusing at the start. However, the confusion of the reader is used by Koontz to make the ending more intense. Koontz certainly unleashes his vivid imagination in this novel, whereas some of the details and occurrences can leave a weak stomached reader feeling nauseous. My mom said that she couldn’t sleep after reading one of the more disturbing sequences of events. The setting of Winter Moon occurs in two different places. Two places that are complete opposites: Los Angeles, California and a ranch in Montana.

Willie Loman as a Tragic Hero

Aristotle’s definition for a tragic hero is one who is not in control of his own fate, but instead is ruled by the gods in one fashion or another.   The tragic hero for Aristotle is tragic because of their lack of control or will in the face of their predetermined future and downfall.   In comparing Arthur Miller’s tragic hero of Death of a Salesman (Willy Loman) and his seeming lack of control in his own fate. This paper will expound upon Loman’s tragic flaw, his change of fate in the plot starting from good and going to worse.   Also, in defining and finding the correct terms in which to define the tragic hero Loman has a great tragic flaw (hamartia) which is his devil may care attitude at the beginning of the story, to the despondency and stagnation of hope that meets him at the end of the story.   Miller’s work analysis will be derived from Greg Johnson’s book Perrine's literature : structure, sound and sense.   As Arp and Johnson state, â€Å"Where tragic protagonist possess overpowering individuality so the plays are often named after them.   (i.e. Oedipus Rex, Othella), comic protagonist tend to be types of individuals, and the plays in which they appear are often named after the type, (i.e. Moliers, The Miser, Congreves, The Double Dealer). We judge tragic protagonist by absolute moral standards, by how far they soar above society.   We judge comic protagonist by social standards, by how well they adjust to society and conform to the expectations of the group† (1308) This is the dichotomy for Willy Loman, the tragic irony, the drama, and Willy Loman’s protagonist stance in a comic viewing. As John Jones (1962) states in On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy with an excerpt from Aristotle’s The Ideal Tragic Hero, â€Å"The well constructed plot must, therefore, have a single issue, and not (as some maintain) a double. The change of fortune must not be from bad to good but the other way round, from good to bad; and it must be caused, not by wickedness, but by some great error [hamartia] on the part of a man such as we have described, or of one better, not worse, than that† (13). This excerpt is the pivotal movement that changes Loman from a man who has hard luck, to the pinnacle of being a tragic hero in which he suffers from hamartia.   For Willy Loman, his reality isn’t primarily attributed to ego; he knows where he is, what he is, but his tragic flaw is accounted for in the pitfall of banal acceptance.   Willy Loman doesn’t try to change anything, but is caught up in mediocrity, and essentially blind to anything with a silver lining. As Harold Bloom (1991) writes in Willy Loman with an excerpt by Thomas Lask and his writing How Do You Like Willy Loman (New York Times, January 1966), â€Å"Yet, to my mind, Willy represents all those who are trapped by false values, but who are so far on in life, that they do not know how to escape them. They are men on the wrong track and know it. They are among those who, when young, felt they could move mountains and now do not even see those mountains. Aristotle said the tragic hero must be neither all good nor all evil, but rather a median figure. Everything about him is paltry except his battle to understand and escape from the pit he has dug for himself. In this battle he achieves a measure of greatness. In the waste of his life, his fate touches us all† (60). In Willy’s acceptance of his own commonness is his own personal flaw.   He doesn’t strive to be any better but allows himself to dully, and almost dutifully accept that he’s a dime a dozen.   Susan C. W. Abbotson (1999) states in Understanding Death of a Salesman, â€Å"Pursuing the dream of middle-class status and success, Willy does everything he thinks a good salesman is supposed to do. He smiles, he tells jokes, he hustles women receptionists. But Willy's talents are ordinary at best, and his value in the market is marginal† (212).   This is Willy’s great error. His mediocrity is a compromise to his once great dreams.   Even in the common man’s world he doesn’t stand out as unique or special; his flaw is in his power to be invisible.   No one seems to care in his existence and for Willy Loman, this realization in turn makes him not care about his own existence in a way, toward the end of the play at least, when his hope is close to banished.   This small sentiment can be found in a few muttered lines from Willy, â€Å"I’ve always tried to think otherwise, I guess.   I always felt that if a man was impressive, and well like, that nothing-â€Å"(97).   This sums up Loman’s fate; his drowning enthusiasm pitted against an uncaring cast of characters. With Oedipus this is the same; his tragic hero status is ensured by his unwillingness to exist as a partial man; without knowing his origins, without knowing his true identity.   While Loman is realizing that he has no identity he thus becomes a tragic hero, for Oedipus when he discovers his true identity, therein lies his status as a tragic hero.   He realizes his ego got in the way of his life.   His ego was his ruin. Willy Loman’s view of the world breaks when he loses his job.   Loman faces the world as no ordinary common man but also an invisible entity left to make no difference on the face of the earth while Oedipus is bereaved of his position and would rather not have lived (or seen what he had accomplished) because of the things he has done.   As Arthur Miller states in Perrine’s Literature, â€Å"Whoever heard of a Hastings small R refrigerator? Once in my life I would like to own, something outright before its broken! I’m always in a race with the junkyard! I just finished paying for the car and it’s on its last legs.   The refrigerator consumes belts like a Goddamn maniac.   They time those things.   They time them so when you finally paid for them they’re used up† (1586). This is the truth behind the tragic hero Loman.  Ã‚   The paradox for Loman as a tragic hero is in Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero; he’s doomed to failure. In conclusion, Loman began his story with an aplomb of luck, or ego, or a rosy view of the world, and his story ends with destruction:   Loman is hit by a car.   The connotation here is that Loman was blind in the beginning of Miller’s play, but not really in the second act.   Loman has dwindling faith in himself and reality.   Loman survived in life under false pretences, thus he suffers from his one flaw; blindness. Works Cited Arp, Thomas R & Greg Johnson.   Perrine’s Literature: Structure, Sound and Sense.   Heinle & Heinle /Thomson Learning, 2002, 8th edition. Bloom, Harold,   ed.   Willy Loman. New York: Chelsea House, 1991. Hamilton, Victoria. Narcissus and Oedipus: The Children of Psychoanalysis. London: Karnac Books, 1993 Jones, John. On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. Miller, Arthur.   Death of a Salesman.   Penguin Books, New York, 1949. Murphy, Brenda, and Susan C. W. Abbotson. Understanding Death of a Salesman A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historical Documents. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999. Sophocles.   Oedipus the King. Oedipus at Colonus.   Antigone.   Ed. David Greene and Richmond Lattimore.   Random House, New York, 1942.

Buddhism In Other Countries

Buddhism began about 2,500 years ago, when young prince Siddhartha Gautama tried to understand the causes of suffering in the world. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini, Nepal, about five hundred years before Jesus of Nazareth, the founder of Christianity, and twelve hundred years before Muhammad, the founder of Islam. He lived for eighty years sometime between 563 and 400 BC. As Harvey writes, until he was twenty-nine years old, the prince lived a life of luxury in his palace within sight of the Himalayan mountains. Then, on several trips he made outside his palace, he saw for the first time people who suffered.Among them were an old man, a sick man, someone who had recently died, and a wandering monk. Following this sudden awakening to the suffering in the world, Siddhartha decided to leave his family and the safety of his palace to seek out the causes of suffering. He spent many years meditating, praying, and fasting. One day he became aware that people suffer when they want to hold on to material things. He realized that we should not become attached to possessions because nothing is permanent: eventually everything dies or becomes worn out. If we think anything will last forever, we are bound to suffer.The process of gaining Enlightenment took Gautama six years. At the age of thirty-five, Siddhartha Gautama, now the Buddha or Awakened One, began his lengthy teaching career of forty-five years. During this time he traversed Northern India with his band of disciples, discussing his teachings and practices freely with laypeople, religious leaders and officials of all kinds. He passed away at the age of eighty in 483 BCE. Schools of Buddhism The moment Siddhartha recognized the cause of suffering, he attained enlightenment, or the great awakening.From that point on, Siddhartha was known as the Buddha, the â€Å"enlightened one. † He spent the rest of his life teaching in India. As the teachings of the Buddha spread from India to other parts of Asia, two majo r schools of Buddhism developed: †¢ Theravada, the â€Å"Teaching of Elders† is a surviving school of the older branch of Buddhism and focuses to this day on preserving and perpetuating verbatim the original words of the historical Buddha. The Four Noble Truths, which were emphasized as the main teaching of the Buddha, are an aspect of self-benefit.Theravada extended in a southeastern direction and can be found today in Burma, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Bangladesh and Indonesia. In Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha is considered a great teacher, and each individual is responsible for his or her own journey towards enlightenment †¢ Mahayana, the â€Å"Greater Vehicle† takes the broader approach to spread the teaching of the Buddha, following the heart or intention of the Buddha. The emphasis is on â€Å"upaya† or skilful means. Mahayana, traveled from India in a north easterly direction to China, Korea, and Japan.This tradition not only recognizes the Budd ha as a godlike figure but also involves devotion to other enlightened being called bodhisattvas. In Mahayana Buddhism, we find different schools of Buddhism such as Zen, Pure Land, Nichiren etc. Each school has developed its unique teachings, but we always find a common basic foundation of Buddhist teachings, as the entire Buddhist sects are based upon the Buddhist sutras or scriptures, which reveal the world of Enlightenment. One important difference between the Mahayana and Theravada schools is in their understanding of the concept of the Bodhisattva.A Bodhisattva is an individual who foregoes enlightenment to help other beings. In the Theravada tradition, a Bodhisattva is considered a preliminary step to a Buddha, a point illustrated in the Jataka tales (tales of the Buddha’s prior births), many of which contain stories of individuals who sacrifice themselves for the benefit of others. In the Mahayana tradition, however, the Bodhisattva represents the highest ideal. A Bod hisattva is a person who has attained the highest enlightenment, which is expressed in service to other beings.According to the Mahayana tradition, a person who pursues his own individual enlightenment becomes trapped in an inferior kind of enlightenment like a prison. As they attempt to escape suffering in the world of illusion, they tend to take this world more seriously; they take this illusion as real. Followers of the Mahayana, who understand emptiness, learn to pursue enlightenment within the world of illusion. By doing this, they can experience emptiness directly. Less emphasis is placed on spiritual practice aimed at individual enlightenment and more on the expression of compassion in daily life. EnlightenmentAll schools of Buddhism believe that every living beings experiences repeated lives on earth and has the opportunity to improve its next birth by performing good deeds in a current life. They also teach that after death, a being can be reborn into another form, such as an animal or insect, and will continue to be reborn until enlightenment is achieved. Enlightenment brings the ultimate goal of nirvana, the final death, which marks release from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Buddhists believe that by following the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Eightfold Path, freedom from the endless cycle of rebirth is possible.Powers write about the central teachings of Buddhism which include: The Middle Way: You must reject extremes of either wanting everything or renouncing everything and seek the balance of the Middle Way. The Four Noble Truths: 1. Suffering – Existence is a realm of suffering, from birth to growing old, becoming sick and dying, all life is suffering. 2. The Source of Suffering – Suffering arises from desire, wanting selfish pleasures, continued life, power and material possessions all lead to suffering. 3. Stopping Suffering – One must completely stop wanting things in order to control desire.Only when n o desire remains is enlightenment possible. 4. The Way to Stop Suffering – The only way to stop suffering and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path If a person follows these eight rules, the world will become a place where all people can live in harmony: 1. Right Understanding-It is only when one understands the four noble truths and follows the Eightfold path can one find true happiness 2. Right Aims – One should always love and help others and not cheat or want things that other people have 3.Right Speech – One should always tell the truth, and listen and communicate in order to understand others 4. Right Action – One should never kill, steal or be jealous of others. One should only perform good deeds for the sake of others benefits and not for ones own reward. 5. Right Work – One should only do work that will not harm other living creatures 6. Right Thinking – One should focus thoughts on positive in ord er to overcome difficulties. 7. Proper Awareness – One should never let ones’ body control the mind and should know when to say no. 8.Meditation – One should train one’s mind to concentrate and think deeply, to be inwardly attentive and reflective in order to find peace within ourselves. Buddhism in India As an independent spiritual tradition in India, Buddhism diverged from Hinduism (traditional Indian thought) in several major areas, though both aim at the common goal of emancipation. Consonant with Indian tradition, Buddha accepted the general world view and interpretation of existence current in the Upanishad tradition. He looked upon existence as a series of transmigrations or in Buddhist terms rebirths.Life is suffering within the confines of samsara. The law of cause and effect in the moral realm — karma — is the arbiter of destiny, and the ultimate goal is that of release into an ineffable and indefinable experience called Nirvana. B uddha accepted, with qualification, the Indian principle of meditation and concentration as the central means for breaking through the veil of delusion and gaining liberation. It is also clear that the development of Buddhism as a religious system depended on Indian reverence for the sage.This also led to the attempt to preserve his words, and the creation of a distinctive and independent religious tradition. After abandoning his life as a prince and reaching an understanding of the suffering in the world, the Buddha, or Enlightened One, spent the remaining forty years of his life teaching people about his Middle Way, that those who follow the middle path reject the extremes of luxury and poverty, and pursue a life of good intentions and actions. The rise of Buddhism is closely connected to the prevalent practices in the Brahamanical religion (Early Hinduism).As Weber writes the Brahamanical religion had become increasingly intolerant (of the lower classes) and exclusive (open only to Brahmins and the aristocracy). The emphasis on conducting rituals (with the help of priests) was gradually alienating the masses. Sanskrit was the prerogative of the Brahmins and the aristocracy. In such an environment, Buddha’s teaching offered an alternative to the mainstream religion. The majority of its early followers were the merchants and the Sudras (untouchables). Buddhism provided a path to reach God.The tenets and rules of Buddhism were very simple to understand, appealing to the mass population. Buddha also preached in the local language, Prakrit. The practice of conducting rituals was seen as superfluous to reaching salvation. Buddha set up monasteries known as Sanghas. In his life, Buddha travelled throughout the whole of northern India spreading his message and setting up monastic orders. Since these monastic orders had to beg for their living, they were generally located near settlements, often on hillsides, etc.Often the monasteries were located on trade ro utes frequented by merchant caravans. They offered shelter to the merchants, who in return made generous donations. After the Buddha’s death, his cremated remains were placed within mounds called stupas. These burial mounds eventually became the focus of Buddhist monasteries and attracted pilgrims from far and wide. In the earliest Buddhist art in India, the Buddha is not represented in human form. Instead, his presence is indicated by a footprint, an empty seat, a parasol, or another sign such as the stupa.Buddhism in China Buddhism entered China perhaps as early as the first century BCE through the first century CE. It was carried by monks and merchants who made their way along trade routes from India through Central Asia to China. The history of Buddhism in China is a complex story of how a foreign religion was imported and transformed into a Chinese system of beliefs. Though Buddhism reached China from India by the first century, it did not flourish until the political an d economic upheavals of the Six Dynasties period (220–589).In those troubling times, Buddhism emphasis on personal salvation and rejection of worldly ties attracted believers from every walk of life. At other times, Buddhism prospered when an emperor chose it as his official religion, but its foreign origin led other rulers to persecute believers. Buddhism survived these periodic challenges and continues to flourish in China today. At first, Chinese Buddhist beliefs and temple art were quite similar to the ideas and images brought from India. These ideas traveled to China from India along the Silk Road and via a southern sea route.Many Indian Buddhist concepts were somewhat changed to better mesh with the existing Chinese traditions, such as Confucianism and Daoism. For example, unlike the Indian emphasis on personal salvation acquired by living a celibate life, Chinese Buddhists encouraged filial piety to complement the Chinese tradition of ancestor worship. Buddhist teachin gs flowed unsystematically into China from India. As a result, their diverse tendencies gave rise to a variety of schools and interpretations. The history of the formation of Buddhist schools divides into two periods.The initial period was known as the age of the â€Å"Six Schools and Seven Branches. † During the second stage, the encouragement and support of Buddhist scholarship by the Sui and T'ang emperors led to the formation of more distinct and well-defined systems of Buddhist teaching which had enduring significance. This age marks the zenith of Buddhist intellectual leadership, influencing Chinese culture deeply and reflecting the gradual assimilation of Buddhism to the Chinese mind. Buddhism in JapanBy the time Buddhism arrived in Japan from Korea and China in the mid-sixth century, nearly a thousand years had passed since the Buddha lived on earth. The religion had grown, evolved, and spread throughout Asia, developing a rich diversity of imagery and beliefs. The Ja panese continued this process of modifying Buddhism to fit their particular cultural preferences. Skilton write about the two main stages which marked the development of Buddhism in Japan. First, from the sixth through the twelfth century, the governing regime used Buddhism as part of a strategy to centralize control.Within one generation of its introduction into Japan, Buddhism became the official state religion. It took a few more centuries for the Buddhist belief system to permeate society and truly coexist with native Shinto beliefs. By the eighth century, the two religions existed in relative integrated harmony. At this initial stage, imagery used in both Buddhist painting and sculpture reflected the tastes of the social elite. The majestic and awe-inspiring images tended to focus on divine hierarchies, meditative paths to enlightenment, perceptions of afterlife and similar themes.The development of Japanese Buddhist culture and art was also greatly influenced by the Tang dynas ty (618-907) China, which was in the midst of a golden age. The second major stage in the development of Japanese Buddhism occurred in the late twelfth century, when political control shifted from the imperial court to a rising warrior class. During this period of unrest, two major Buddhist movements gained prominence: popular forms of Buddhism adopted by ordinary people and Zen Buddhism (Chan, in Chinese), which had been imported from ChinaWhen Buddhism reached Japan in the sixth century from Korea and China, its sophisticated philosophical message was difficult for most Japanese to understand. A small elite was then learning Chinese (Japan’s first written language) and some of them began to study Chinese Buddhist texts, as scholars and members of the clergy do in Japan down to the present. However, most Japanese were first attracted to Buddhist art, to Buddhist magic or to the possibility of closer ties with the advanced civilization of China, where Buddhism had already spr ead.Whatever the attraction, by the eighth century, when the Japanese established their first permanent capital in the city of Nara, the Japanese court had embraced Buddhism as well as Shinto. Buddhism became powerful in Japan because it met the needs of people on all levels of life. It transmitted major symbols of spiritual power in Indian tradition, while also teaching Chinese Confucian morality and aspects of religious Taoism, focusing on its utility in this life. It also stressed its importance for concerns of the afterlife, claiming that it cared for both affairs of this world and the other world.Conclusion As Buddhism spread from India to China and Japan it has changed and assumed new forms and dimensions. In China it has been transformed by Confucianism and Taoism and evolved further in Japan. Like other religions, the Buddhist tradition and its teachings evolved, adapted, and developed in different ways as they encountered and became at home with different cultures and count ries in various times and places; thus, over the centuries, there arose numerous schools of Buddhist thought and traditions of practice, emphasizing different aspects of the teachings.Despite the incredible variation, all have the same goal of leading beings to enlightenment. References Weber, Edmund. â€Å"Buddhism: An Atheistic and Anti-Caste Religion? † Journal of Religious Culture. No. 50. (2001) Harvey, Peter. Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History Practice. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ) Powers, John. A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2nd Edition. Birmingham, England: Windhorse Publications: 1997.